George Lincoln Rockwell, a controversial figure in American history, emerged as a prominent leader of the neo-Nazi movement in the United States during the mid-20th century. His transformation from a naval officer to the founder of the American Nazi Party had a significant impact on far-right politics and extremist ideologies in America. Rockwell’s life and actions continue to be subjects of study and debate, shedding light on the complex interplay between free speech, extremism, and social dynamics in the United States.
This article delves into Rockwell’s journey to extremism, exploring the factors that led to his radical shift in beliefs. It examines the American Nazi Party under his leadership, his public image, and his interactions with the media. The piece also looks at the legal battles and free speech controversies surrounding Rockwell’s activities, providing insight into the challenges faced by society in balancing civil liberties with the need to address hate speech and extremist ideologies.
Rockwell’s Journey to Extremism
George Lincoln Rockwell’s transformation from a naval officer to the founder of the American Nazi Party was a gradual process influenced by various factors in his personal life and the sociopolitical climate of his time. His journey to extremism began with his early experiences and culminated in his embrace of Nazi ideology.
Naval Career and Initial Political Views
Rockwell’s journey began with his service in the United States Navy. He joined the Navy in 1940, attending flight schools in Massachusetts and Florida. During World War II, he served in the Battle of the Atlantic and the Pacific War, primarily in support, photo reconnaissance, transport, and training functions. Rockwell served aboard several ships, including the USS Omaha, USS Pastores, USS Wasp, and USS Mobile.
The structure and discipline of the Navy appealed to Rockwell, and he rose to the rank of commander – a title he would continue to use for the rest of his life. His time in the Navy, however, also coincided with the development of his controversial political views. While stationed in San Diego, Rockwell began to privately advocate for Adolf Hitler and support Nazism.
Exposure to Anti-Semitic Literature
Rockwell’s ideological shift was significantly influenced by his exposure to anti-Semitic literature. In 1951, he read two influential works that would shape his future beliefs: “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion” and Adolf Hitler’s manifesto “Mein Kampf”. These texts, known for their anti-Semitic content, played a crucial role in shaping Rockwell’s worldview.
His political views were further influenced by several prominent figures of his time. He was affected by Senator Joseph McCarthy’s stance against communism, carmaker Henry Ford’s hatred of Jews, and aviator Charles Lindbergh’s views on race. These influences contributed to Rockwell’s growing extremist ideology.
Transformation into a Neo-Nazi Leader
Rockwell’s transformation into a neo-Nazi leader was marked by several key events. In 1957-1958, he experienced a series of dreams that culminated in him meeting Hitler. These dreams seemed to solidify his commitment to Nazi ideology.
In 1958, Rockwell met Harold Noel Arrowsmith Jr., a wealthy heir and anti-Semite who provided him with a house and printing equipment. Together, they formed the National Committee to Free America from Jewish Domination, marking Rockwell’s first formal step into organized anti-Semitic activities.
Rockwell’s journey reached its apex in 1958, which he considered his “personal political Rubicon”. It was in this year that he broke away from other fringe groups, fully embraced the swastika, and created the American Nazi Party. This move solidified his position as a prominent figure in the American far-right movement.
Rockwell’s transformation was not just ideological but also physical. Once known for his tall, handsome appearance and trademark corn cob pipe (reminiscent of General Douglas MacArthur), Rockwell now adopted the visual trappings of Nazism. He leveraged his background in showmanship, inherited from his vaudeville performer parents, to create a media-savvy persona that earned him the nickname “Barnum of the Bigots”.
Through his journey to extremism, Rockwell evolved from a naval officer who had once fought against fascism into a man convinced that only fascism could save America. His transformation was complete, and he was now poised to lead the American Nazi Party, leaving an indelible mark on the landscape of far-right politics in the United States.
The American Nazi Party under Rockwell
Party Structure and Membership
The American Nazi Party (ANP) was founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in March 1959, initially under the name World Union of Free Enterprise National Socialists (WUFENS). The organization’s name was chosen to express opposition to state ownership of property. In December of the same year, Rockwell renamed it the American Nazi Party to attract maximum media attention.
The party’s first headquarters was established in Arlington, Virginia, due to its proximity to the nation’s capital. Initially funded by Harold Arrowsmith, a wealthy Baltimore white supremacist, the headquarters was located in a house on Williamsburg Boulevard, known for displaying a spotlight on a swastika.
Membership in the ANP was relatively small. The party had about 30 local members in Arlington, with an additional 30 members spread across other parts of the country. Despite its limited size, Rockwell claimed to have about 500 followers at one point.
Ideological Tenets and Goals
The ANP under Rockwell embraced Nazi uniforms and iconography, aligning itself with far-right and neo-Nazi ideologies. The party’s core beliefs included white supremacy and anti-Semitism. Rockwell believed that integration was a Jewish plot to rule the white community.
One of the most controversial aspects of the party’s ideology was Holocaust denial. In an April 1966 interview with Playboy magazine, Rockwell stated, “I don’t believe for one minute that any 6,000,000 Jews were exterminated by Hitler. It never happened”.
The party’s goals included promoting white power and opposing what they perceived as threats to white dominance. This was evident in their activities, such as picketing against prominent Jewish figures like entertainer Sammy Davis, Jr., and Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion.
Propaganda Techniques and Publications
Rockwell and the ANP employed various propaganda techniques to spread their message:
- Public Demonstrations: The party held talks, protests, and pickets to draw attention to their cause.
- Music: In the 1960s, Rockwell started a record label called Hootenanny Records. The label released singles promoting racist and white supremacist beliefs, sold primarily through mail order and at party rallies.
- Political Campaigns: Rockwell ran for governor of Virginia as an independent in 1965, using the campaign as a platform for his views.
- Print Media: The party operated a printing press on their premises to produce propaganda materials.
- Visual Propaganda: The party headquarters displayed provocative signs such as “White Man Help Smash Black Revolution” and “Trespassers Will be Prosecuted or Shot”.
As the party evolved, Rockwell attempted to shift its public image. He initiated “Phase Two,” a plan to recast the group as a legitimate political party by toning down verbal and written attacks against non-whites, replacing the party rallying cry of “Sieg Heil!” with “White Power!”, and limiting public display of the swastika.
In 1966 or 1967, Rockwell renamed the ANP to the National Socialist White People’s Party (NSWPP), a move intended to create a more “ecumenical” approach and facilitate organizational growth. However, this decision alienated some hard-line members.
Rockwell’s assassination in August 1967 halted his plans for party reforms. His death led to internal disputes and the eventual dissipation of the original American Nazi Party, with various ad hoc organizations later usurping the ANP logo.
Rockwell’s Public Image and Media Relations
George Lincoln Rockwell, the founder of the American Nazi Party, was a master of media manipulation and shock value. Standing at six feet four inches tall with flashing eyes, Rockwell possessed a commanding presence that he leveraged to attract attention to his extremist views. His media-savvy approach and provocative tactics ensured that he remained in the public eye, despite the controversial nature of his beliefs.
Provocative Public Appearances
Rockwell’s public appearances were carefully orchestrated to generate maximum publicity. In 1960, he held a rally on the National Mall in Washington D.C., delivering a two-hour speech to attract media attention. His attempts to hold similar events in other cities often resulted in confrontations and legal battles. When Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. denied him a permit to speak in New York City’s Union Square, Rockwell appealed the decision, leading to a melee in the courthouse rotunda that required police intervention.
Rockwell’s provocative tactics extended beyond speeches. In 1961, he and his followers drove a Volkswagen van emblazoned with the words “hate bus” through the American South, parodying the Freedom Riders who fought for civil rights reform. This stunt, like many others, was designed to generate outrage and media coverage.
Interviews and Debates
Rockwell’s ability to secure interviews and debates with prominent figures further amplified his message. In a notable instance, he was invited to speak at a rally organized by the Nation of Islam, where he praised their leader as the “Adolf Hitler of the black man”. This unexpected alliance demonstrated Rockwell’s willingness to align with any group that shared his anti-Semitic views.
One of Rockwell’s most infamous interviews was conducted by Alex Haley for Playboy magazine in 1966. During this interview, Rockwell used racial slurs extensively and denied the Holocaust, stating, “I don’t believe for one minute that any 6,000,000 Jews were exterminated by Hitler. It never happened”. Despite the offensive nature of his comments, Rockwell’s charisma and confidence were evident, with one observer noting, “He never hesitates when he speaks, and he almost glows with confidence”.
Use of Shock Value for Publicity
Rockwell’s use of shock value was a cornerstone of his publicity strategy. He often appeared in full Nazi uniform, complete with swastika armbands, to provoke strong reactions from the public and media. His inflammatory rhetoric and use of Nazi symbolism ensured that he remained a controversial figure, even as he failed to gain significant political traction.
In one instance, when photographed by Jewish photojournalist Eve Arnold in 1961, Rockwell hissed, “I’ll make a bar of soap out of you!”. Such deliberately offensive statements were designed to generate headlines and keep Rockwell in the public eye.
Rockwell’s media strategy was so effective that reporters speculated many of his “stormtroopers” were FBI infiltrators or undercover journalists. This constant media attention, while largely negative, served Rockwell’s purpose of spreading his message and keeping his name in the headlines.
Legal Battles and Free Speech Controversies
George Lincoln Rockwell’s controversial activities led to numerous legal battles and debates over free speech rights. His provocative tactics and extreme views often resulted in arrests, court cases, and heated discussions about the limits of the First Amendment.
Arrests and Court Cases
Rockwell’s public appearances frequently ended in confrontations with law enforcement. In 1960, he and eight party members were arrested during a rally on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.. Following this incident, Rockwell demanded a trial but was instead committed to a psychiatric hospital for thirty days. He was released in less than two weeks after being found mentally competent to stand trial.
In another notable case, a warrant was issued for Rockwell’s arrest on June 28, 1960, for disorderly conduct. The complaint alleged that Rockwell had made offensive and false statements about Jews and African Americans in the rotunda of the New York County Supreme Courthouse. Despite the warrant, Rockwell avoided arrest by staying away from New York, leading to an unusual legal situation where his attorney attempted to challenge the validity of the charges without Rockwell’s physical presence in court.
Debates over First Amendment Rights
Rockwell’s activities sparked intense debates about the limits of free speech. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) represented Rockwell in several cases, defending his right to speak and hold rallies. These legal battles often centered on the balance between protecting free speech and preventing public disturbances or hate speech.
One such case occurred in 1966 when the ACLU defended Rockwell’s right to stage marches in Jewish neighborhoods during Jewish holidays. This case highlighted the tension between protecting controversial speech and respecting the rights and sensitivities of minority communities.
University Speaking Engagements
Rockwell’s attempts to speak at universities became flashpoints for debates about academic freedom and the role of controversial speakers on campus. In 1963, the University of Michigan faced a dilemma when Rockwell was invited to speak. The event sparked discussions about the university’s responsibility to expose students to diverse viewpoints, even when those views were widely considered abhorrent.
University President Harlan Hatcher defended the decision to allow Rockwell to speak, citing the institution’s policy on outside speakers. He argued that making exceptions to this policy would create a “dilemma” in determining which speakers should be allowed. This stance reflected the challenges universities faced in balancing free speech principles with concerns about legitimizing extremist views.
The debates surrounding Rockwell’s campus appearances foreshadowed contemporary discussions about free speech on college campuses. Some argue that standards have changed significantly since Rockwell’s time, with present-day students being less tolerant of speakers perceived as offensive or controversial.
Conclusion
George Lincoln Rockwell’s journey from naval officer to Nazi leader sheds light on the complex interplay between free speech, extremism, and social dynamics in mid-20th century America. His provocative tactics and media manipulation had a significant impact on far-right politics, sparking debates about the limits of free expression and the challenges of addressing hate speech. Rockwell’s story serves as a reminder of the ongoing struggle to balance civil liberties with the need to combat extremist ideologies.
The legacy of Rockwell and the American Nazi Party continues to resonate in discussions about political extremism and free speech. Their activities pushed the boundaries of what was considered acceptable public discourse, leading to legal battles and campus controversies that foreshadowed contemporary debates. While Rockwell’s influence waned after his assassination, his tactics and the issues he raised remain relevant to analyze the complexities of protecting free speech while confronting hateful ideologies in a democratic society.
